MORPHOLOGICAL PROCESS OF WORDS’ FORMATION - Onyeji Nnaji


CONTENS
(1AFFIXATION

PREFIXATIONS
(i) Prefix A:
(ii) Prefix B:
(iii) prefix C:
(iv) Prefix D:
(V) Prefix E:

(1.2)    SUFFIXES
(i) Suffixes A:
(ii) Suffixes B:
(iii) Suffixes C:
(iv) Suffix D:

(2)   DERIVED MORPHEMES
(2.1)  Loaned Words
(2.1.1) Loaned Words from Greek
(2.1.2) Loaned Words from Latin
(2.1.3) Words of French Origin
(2.1.4)Words of African Origin
(2.2) Duplications
(2.2.1) Reduplication
(2.2.2) Doubly

(2.2.3) Phrasal doublies




                                                                          AFFIXATION

The grammatical composition of every language depends richly on the possible patterning which such language has acquired or received from its morphological formation and combinations. English language, as well as every other language, has its morphological formation and combination – a set of patterning which it acquired through its morphological processes – derive from where its grammar is inferred. This serves as the basic because every language - spoken or written - is composed of the universal strata, stretching from sentences to words which in turn comprised one or more morphemes.   
   
Morphemes have been identified as the minimal grammatical unit with which words are formed. Some linguists interpreted morphemes as units of sounds. This assertion may be correct semantically. It is very dicey to accept this idea completely except it is subjected to scientific tests since some sounds do not establish a better syntagmatic relationship. For instance, “A” and “P” are two letters representing the sounds /æ/ or /a: / and the consonant /P/. The former which is a vowel can represent/serve as a morpheme only in two either senses, while /P/ cannot serve as a morpheme. Instances where such obtains are, when the sound represents an article (in which case it stands alone in a sentence as a word), and when it represents a unit of sound which suggests exclamation. Another sound which has been observed in the study of syntax as a bound morpheme is the vowel /ǝ/, representing -er and -or bound suffixes.

On this note, I see morphemes rather as the minimal grammatical units into which a word can be structurally divided and meaningfully combined. For instance, the word “Unlikely” can be structurally divided into un-like-ly. The meaningful aspect of these fragmented words lies on their structural combinations. The art or the act of combining these structures into meaningful words or their divisions into constituent structures are referred to as the morphological process. Morphology therefore, is the study of the structuring – the combination and divisibility – of morphemes in their meaningful ways to form words. Several morphological processes are involved in these combinations according to the nature of words. In this aspect of the study, we shall examine morphological processes in the light of two words: Affixation and derivation of morphemes.
           
In morphology, words are considered in line with the number of the morphemes they are comprised. Words composed of one or more consonants and a vowel are referred to as a word of one morpheme. Example of these includes. Come (k˄m/, of /ǝv/, to /tu/, comb/kǝum/, womb/wu:m/ etc. These are different from words like record/rekↄ:d/, remove/rimu:v/, remix/rimiks/, relate/rileit/ etc. these are, by their nature, words of two morphemes. There are also words like, institutionalize /institju:ʃǝnalaiz/, computation /kǝmpju:teiʃn/ and communication /kǝmju:nikeiʃn/. All these are words of various morphemes different from the other. We shall see how this attachment is done and achieved among words.   

Affixation is the process through which words are created by adding one or more morphemes at the front of a word or behind the word. Words or morphemes added in the front are called prefixes, while those added from behind are referred to as suffixes. It is simply explained thus:
                                               
Roots refer to those core morphemes upon which other morphemes depend for meaningful combination. The base, the very heart of the word on which other morphemes are appended is called the root. The word “commercialisation” has its root at “commercial”. When we add -ize to it, it becomes a stem for the suffix -ation. A stem of any word on this ground refers to the word which embodies the appendage of the last morpheme.
           
Affixation as a process of word formation depends richly on the role of affixes in creating new words. As have been clarified earlier, affixes that appear before words are called prefixes while those that appear behind are called suffixes. One remarkable feature of affixes is that their inclusion changes the meaning of their root words, sometimes slightly, while in many occasions it gives the opposite meaning of the root of the word.

PREFIXATIONS:
The English language as a tool in the hand of language users has developed a good number of prefixes which have contributed in word creations. Some of the prefixes are exemplified below:

(A)       - Those that create opposite of meaning. These are realised through the following prefixes.
(i):-      de - /di/ such as
            Moralize         -           demoralize    
            Motion            -           demotion       
            Compress       -           decompress
            Increase         -           decrease
            Form               -           deform          
            Efficiency        -           deficiency
            Emphasis        -           de emphasize
            Congest          -           decongest
Grade              -           degrade         
Control           -           decontrol      
Segregate       -           desegregate
Criminalize     -           decriminalize
Ascend            -           descend         

(ii):-     Dis:
            Mount-            dismount
            Place   -           displace
            Agree  -           disagree
            Engage-          disengage
            Like     -           dislike
            Count  -           discount
            Respect-         disrespect
            Repute-           disrepute
           
(iii)      im - /im/ as in (this is used mainly before words beginning with the letter “p”)
Patient-           impatient - /im/
Pious   -           impious
Potent -           impotent
Perishable-     imperishable
Penetrable-    impenetrable
Permeable-    impermeable
Mobile-           immobile
Mortal-           immortal

(iv)      in- /in/ as in:
            Appropriate   -           inappropriate
            Decent                        -           indecent
            Elastic             -           inelastic
            Audible           -           inaudible
            Congruous     -           incongruous
            Fallible            -           infallible
            Dependent     -           independent
            Credible          -           incredible

(v)       il - /il/ as in: (used mainly before words beginning with L)
            Legal               -           illegal
            Logical            -           illogical
            Literate           -           illiterate
            Legitimate      -           illegitimate
            Legitimacy      -           illegitimacy
            Literacy          -           illiteracy
            Legible            -           illegible

(vi)      un -  as in:
            Compromised -          uncompromised
            Belief              -           unbelief
            Healthy           -           unhealthy
            Conditional    -           unconditional
            Conscious       -           unconscious  
            Veiled             -           unveiled
            Invite              -           uninvited
            Predictable     -           unpredictable

(B) Prefixes B are those prefixes that do not indicate direct opposite of the meaning of their root words. They rather indicate a little deviation which cannot be completely regarded as opposite of meaning. Some express antecedent or past.
(i)        Ex - /ǝks/ as in:
            Minister-          ex-minister
            Governor-      ex-governor
            President-      ex-president
            Officials-         ex-officials
            Leader  -         ex-leader
            Convict -         ex-convict

(ii)       Mis - /mis/ as in:
            Spelt    -           misspelt
            Rule    -           misrule
            Understand-   misunderstand
            Pronounced-  mispronounced
            Conduct-         misconduct
            Count  -           miscount
Direct  -           misdirect
            Calculate-       miscalculate
            Use      -           misuse

(C)      Prefixes C are those prefixes used to indicate precedents or actions in front. They introduce the action of their root words and announce them clearly.
(i)        Pre (before) -           as in:
            Intend             -           pre-intend
            Marital            -           premarital
            Eminence       -           pre-eminence
            Independent  -           pre-independent
            Fix                   -           prefix
            Occupation     -           preoccupation
            Occupy            -           preoccupy

(ii)       Pro- /prǝu/ as in:
            Claim               -           proclaim
            Fuse                -           profuse
            Motion            -           promotion
            Vision             -           provision
Position          -           preposition

(D)      Prefixes D are those that connote repetition of actions.
            re - /re/ as in:
            Commend       -           recommend
            Duplicate        -           reduplicate
            Publish           -           republish
            Print                -           reprint
            Mind               -           remind
            Place               -           replace

(E)      Prefix E, those that express the after effect of their roots or
(i)        post - /pǝust/ as in:
            Independence-          post independence
            Structural       -           post structural
            Graduate        -           post graduate
            Card                -           post card
            Code               -           post code
            Doctoral         -           post doctoral
            Modernism    -           post modernism
            Natal               -           post natal
            Script              -           post script
            War                 -           post war

(ii)       Neo – (new) as in:
            Colonialism    -           neo colonialism
            Classic             -           neo classic
            Natal               -           neonatal
We also have this prefix functioning with other roots to change their forms and meaning. Example includes:
Logic               -           neologism
            Lithium           -           Neolithic etc.

(1.2)    SUFFIXES
            This is another form of affixation. In this case, the morphemes attached to their root words are placed behind the words.
(A)       Suffixes A, Adjectival affixes are added to serve as post modifiers of the root words.
(i)        -LY / Li/ as in:
            Leisure           -           leisurely
            Love                -           lovely
            Friend             -           friendly
            Earth               -           earthly
            Scholar           -           scholarly
            Coward           -           cowardly
            Elder               -           elderly

(ii)       - ish / iʃ/. This is added to proper nouns to express nationality, condition of health or behaviour, or to express language or quality.
            Jew                  -           Jewish
            Sweden           -           Swedish
            Turkey            -           Turkish
            England          -           English
            Devil               -           devilish
            Grey                -           greyish
            Fever              -           feverish
            Young             -           youngish
            Clown             -           clownish
            Sheep              -           sheepish

(iii)     -like /læik/ & -some /s˄m/: These are used with their roots to express semblance, state, exploration and habitual actions etc.
            Irk                   -           irksome
            Loathe            -           loathsome
            Worry             -           worrisome
            Burden           -          burdensome
            Trouble          -          troublesome
            Hand               -           handsome
            Whole             -           wholesome
            War                 -           warlike
            Christ              -           Christ like
            Business         -           businesslike
            God                 -           godlike
            Life                  -           lifelike

(B)      -hood /hu:d/. Suffixes B are noun suffixes used to indicate position or gender.        
            Man                 -           manhood
            Woman           -           womanhood
            Father             -           fatherhood
            Parent             -           parenthood
            Knight             -           knighthood
            Likely              -           likelihood
            Brother          -           brotherhood
            Child               -           childhood
            Mother           -           motherhood
            Neighbour      -           neighbourhood
            Boy                 -           boyhood
            Widow            -           widowhood

(C) Suffixes C are some affixes whose root words are mainly adjectives. They are affixes that serve as post modifiers in a comparative manner.
            Root               -/ǝ/                 -/est/
            Wide               -wider             -widest
            Broad             -broader         -broadest
            Long               -longer            -longest
            Happy             -happier         -happiest
            Soon               -sooner           -soonest
            Small               -smaller          -smallest

(D) Suffix D is formed through the use of allomorph. This refers to the variant form of morphemes. The concept explains the comprehension of phonological variations for specific morphemes. It occurs when a unit of meaning varies in sounds in different instances without changing in their meaning. Allomorphs inflect their roots for, mainly, two results: for plural (numbers) marking and past marking. These are marked with the use of such morphemes as -/ǝn/, -/ǝ/, -/in/ -/s/, -/z/, -/iz/ and /ŋ/.

Contrast in identical distributional environments may be however treated as sub morphemic items if the difference in the meaning of the allomorphic reflections meets the distribution of their forms. Take for instance, the following words: maps, hoes, lavae, memoranda, children and oxen, having the following allomorphs /s/, /z/, /i:/, /ǝ/, /rǝn/ and /in/, may be considered to have a common semantic distributiveness, although they are distinctively different in their phonemic forms which may be very difficult to define phonemically. These differences are discovered to be complementary in their distributions. This is because, where one form appears the other cannot appear fittingly well.

/s/ and -ed allomorphs vary consistently in their different position mainly in sounds and root wholly in both meaning and spellings. Instances of such conditions are exemplified below.
/s/                  /z/                  /Iz/
Cuts                 rides               passes
Stops               boys                washes
Sings               watches           laughs
Comes             judges             takes

-ed varies as follow:
/t/                   /d/                  /id/
Kicked             phoned           planted                      
Laughed         arranged        manipulated
Dropped         turned                        manifested
Looked           behaved         spotted
Passed                        accused          shouted
Fetched          adored            defended
Asked              buzzed            promoted

From the above example, “e” is realised with the vowel /i/ in the third examples. In the first position, (-ed) was completely deleted and replaced with the consonant /t/; yet in all these variations, their meanings and spellings were never affected.



                   (2)   DERIVED MORPHEMES
Many morphemes tend to change the form-class (part of speech) of their inflected roots from one form to another. For example, the word exalt is naturally a verb, but when -ation inflects it the form-class will change from verbs to nouns. When this is achieved in the process of word formation we say that a derivation has occurred. It is possible for another derivational affix to follow another one in a particular word in the English language. In the word naturalisation, for instance, the derivational suffix -al succeeded nature to give us the word natural. Then the derivational suffix /aiz/ follows, as also another derivational suffix -/eiʃn/ succeeded them to give us the word, naturalisation. Derivational suffixes can also go with inflectional morpheme. Inflectional suffixes are those suffixes that appear at the end of words; they are significant for grammatical roles. They are used to show tenses and pluralities among different roots, but they do not bring about changes of words from one part of speech to another.

From the second example above it is obvious that derivative morphemes inflect their roots to change from one form-class to another. The fluctuation or movement of the root in response to each of the suffixes are explained in the table below.



Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Nature

+

-

-

Natural

+

-

+

Naturalize

-

+

-

Naturalisation

+

-

-

The table clarifies the sense of derivation in the meaning and answers the questions about the movement of inflected roots to different form-classes. It is needful to clarify here that this movement is not a universal condition for every derived words. Exceptional cases abound for some roots. Good examples of such impeccable words are “nation, national, nationalist and nationalism.” Each of the words has one or more derived morphemes but their roots refuse to move or change its form-class. This is the only root is found so far in the English language that can be inflected to four forms without any change of form-class (part of speech).

Movement is one remarkable feature that characterizes derivational morphemes. It may be movement across form-class as exemplified in the table above, movement within different suffixes as shown in the preceding paragraph, movement across languages as shall be discussed in progress, or movement as a result of duplications of the roots or the roots and related words of closer phonological tie respectively. As the root moves in consonance with any of the steps above, the resultant word will either increase or decrease. Various forms of derivations are examined below:

 (2.1)  Loaned Words:
English language has developed influences from other languages. The influences had resulted from the encounter of the English tradition with the characters dominant in the tradition of other nations which has directly affected the original English language tradition over time. Following this condition, many vocabularies belonging to the languages of the involved nations were borrowed and wedded to the English language. This circumstance is clarified in the background of the book, The Semiology of Syntax. The languages involved in this loaning include Greek, Latin and French mainly.

(2.1.1) Loaned Words from Greek:

Root
Meaning
English derivatives
a/an
Without, not.
Agnostic, ahistorical, anaemia, anaesthesia, anonymous, apathy, asymmetric, atrophic,
Abac
Reckoning, board used for counting votes
Abacus, abacus, abax etc.
Abyss
Bottomless
Abyss, abyssal, abyssocottidae, abyssopelagic etc.
Angel
Messenger
Angel
Hagio
Holy
Hagiography, hagiology etc.
Ankur
Anchor
Anchoring, anchor, ankyrin etc.
Ankon
Elbow
Ancona, ancon, anconal etc.
Agro
Tilled land
Agrobiology, agrology, agronomy etc.
Adamant
Unconquerable
Adamant
Adolph
Brother
Adolphous, monodelphous etc.
Od/ed
Singing
Comedy, ode, rhapsody, parody, comedian etc.
Aero/air
Air
Airship, aeroplane, aerobatic, aerobics etc.
Athlet
Contesting in the games
Athletic, athlete etc.
Aesthet
Sensitive, perceptive
Aesthetic, Aesthetism, Aesthete etc.
Acro
Topmost, optimal
Acromantula, akron, acrobat etc.
Alpha
First/beginning
Alphabet.
Amazon
Female warrior
Amazon, amazonia, amazonite etc.
Anagog
Spiritual uplift
Anagoge, anagogy etc.
Analy
Loosen, simplify
Analysis, analytic, analyse etc.
Axio
Worthy
Axiological, axiomatisation, axiom, axiological etc.
Apo
Away from
Apology, apostrophe, apocalypse, Apocrypha etc.
Biblio
Book
Bible, bibliography, bibliographer, bibliotherapy etc.
Bio
Life
Biology, biomass, biography, biome etc.
Geo
Earth
Geography, georeference etc.
Gam
Marriage
Monogamy, polygamy, bigamy etc.
Gen
Birth
Genetic, genesis, gene etc.
Glott
Tongue
Glottis, epiglottis etc.
Deka
Ten
Decade, decagon etc.
Demo
People, power
Democracy, demagogy, demography etc.
Ego
Me, I, mine
Ego, egocentrism, egocentric etc
Zoo
Animal
Zoo, zoology, protozoa etc.
Helio
Sun
Heliography, heliotropism, helium etc.
Thron
An elevated seat
Throne, enthronement etc.

(2.1.2) Loaned Words from Latin:


Roots
Meaning
Derived English
Alacre
Quick
Alacrity, allegro etc.
Ali
Other
Alias, alibi, alien, inalienable etc.
Alve

Alveolar, alveolus, postalveolar etc.
Ampl
Ample
Amplification, amplifier, amplitude etc.
Anim
Mind, anger
Animosity, unanimous etc.
Ann
Year
Annual, annuity, biannual, biennial etc.
Art
Skill
Artefact, artifice, artificial, artisan etc.
Arm
Weapon
Army, armour, armature, armada etc.
Avi
Bird
Aves, avian, aviation etc.
Aur
Ear
Aural, auricle, auricular, auriform etc.
Bell
War
Belligerent, antebellum, bellic, bellicose, rebel, rebellion, revel, imbellic, bellicosity etc.
Ben
Good
Benediction, benedictory, benefactor, benefit, benign, benignity etc.
Optim
Best
Optimal, optimist, optimism etc.
Melior
Better
Ameliorate etc.
Bin
Two each
Binary, combination, recombination, recombinant etc.
Brev
Brief, short
Abbreviate, abbreviation, bravery, brevity etc.
Capit
Head
Capital, capitulate, decapitated, captain, cadet, capitol etc.
Carn
Flesh
Carnal, carnality, cannibal, reincarnation, incarnate etc.
Cas
House
Casino, castle etc.
Celer
Quick
Accelerate, celerity, acceleration, accelerator etc.
Circ
Circle
Circle, circular, circulation, circus etc.
Civ
Citizen
Civil, civilisation, civilian etc.
Cord
Heart
Accord, concordance, cordial, core, discord, record etc.
Cras
Tomorrow
Procrastination, procrastinate etc,
Die
Day
Diary, dial, meridian etc.
Dign
Worthy
Dignity, indignation, dignify, indignant, indignity etc.
Domin
Lord
Dominion, domination, domain, dominate etc.
Fam
Hunger
Famine, famished etc.
Flo
Flower
Flora, florid, flourish, fluorescent etc. 
Form/formul
Shape, form
Conformity, deformity, formula, inform, formulate, formulation, perform, reform, reformation, informative etc.
Grad
Step
Gradual, graduate, gradually, gratify, gradient etc.  
Herb
Grass
Herbal, herbalist, herbivorous, herbicide etc.
Hum
Ground
Humid, exhume, humility, inhumane, humane, humiliation etc.
Lax
Loose
Relax, laxity, relaxation etc.
Line
Line
Lineage, align, linear etc.
Plum
Feather
Plume, plumage etc.
Sign
Mark, sign
Assignment, consign, design, designation, signification, significant, resignation, reassignment etc.
Sole
One, only
Sole, solitary, solitude, solo etc.
Termin
Boundary
Terminal, determination, termination, exterminate, determine, determinant etc.
Test
Witness
Protest, protestant, detestable, attest, attestation, testimony, testifier etc.
Vacu
Empty
 Vacuum, vacuous etc.
Voc
Voice
Vocabulary, vocal, revoke, vouch, avowal, advocacy etc.


(2.1.3) Words of French Origin:
Prominent among the terms invented into English from French are considered in the table below. These words either have French origin or that they were coined by French inventors.

Names of some exotic animals
Warfare and military terms
Political lexicon or jargon
Judiciary lexicon or diplomacy.
lion, leopard antelope, giraffe, camel, camel, zebu, elephant, baboon, dolphin, ocelot, ostrich, chameleon.
battalion, dragon, infantry, army, artillery, corvette, musketeer, carabineer, pistol, fusilier, squad, squadron, platoon, brigade, corps, sortie, reconnaissance, surveillance, rendezvous, espionage, volley, siege, terrain, troop, camouflage, logistics, accoutrements, bivouac, morale, spirit-de-corps, aid-de-camp etc.
Liberalism, capitalism, materialism, nationalism, coup d’état, plebiscite, regime, sovereignty etc.

Attorney, court, jury, case, justice etc.
Protocol, passport, alliance, accord, rapprochement, entente, memoire, détente, communiqué, diplomacy, chancery, embassy, envoy etc. 


Some military ranks or rankings are undoubtedly traced to French. Some of them include admiral, lieutenant, colonel, captain, general, sergeant etc. The influence of the French language has also marked the domain of the arts: surrealism, impressionism, fauvism, cubism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, aquarelle, college, grisaille etc.

Other examples include colour names: violet, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, scarlet, cerise etc. Vegetables or fruits like cabbage, carrot, sherry, chestnut, nutmeg, quince, lemon, orange, apricot etc. Months of the year: January, March, May, July, November, December.

Some of the French words that made their ways into the English language were coined by French inventors, discoverers or pioneers in some field of academic studies, or scientists. We can find in English language, words like cinema, television, helicopter, aviation, parachute, bathyscaphe, lactose, chlorophyll, mastodon, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, photograph, thermometer, stethoscope etc.

Terms that most recently entered the English language have kept French pronunciation and spelling. Some may be disputed about their French origin, but evidence from their autograph made them French. Among such words are barrage, bureau, dossier, machine, garage, mirage, café, décor, bourgeoisie, espionage, elite, expertise, intrigue, armoire, critique, genre, ambiance, college, montage, plaque, penchant, repertoire, entourage, terrain, debris, glacier, financier, comprehend etc.

(2.1.4)Words of African Origin:
Dialects in the United States resulted from different waves of immigration of English speakers’ contact with other languages. Terms from Africa got woven into the English language through the event of the trans-Atlantic slavery. This consequently had a profound impact on African American English. Slave trade took a large number of people from various parts of Africa into the United States, thereby carrying African tradition alongside. Before the advent of slavery, in the early 1600's, immigrants from Southeastern England began arriving on the North American continent. Other immigrants were a group of expunged puritans sailed from England in the reign of Charles I. Among this latter group was Mary Rolanson. Detail of this immigration wave is related in the account of Mary Rolanson. By the mid-1800's, 3.5 million immigrants left the British Isles for the United States.

The American English language is characterized by archaisms (words that changed meaning in Britain, but remained in the colonies) and innovations in vocabulary (borrowing from French and Spanish who were also settling in North America). Noah Webster was the most vocal campaigner about the need for an American national identity with regards to the American English language. He wrote an American spelling book, The Blueback Speller, in 1788 and changed several spellings from British English (for instance, colour became color, theatre became theater, etc.) In 1828, he published his famous American Dictionary of the English Language. From Africa came the following terms:

Words
Suspected origin
Banana
West Africa.
Bozo
West Africa
Boogie
Sierra Leone
Okra
Igbo language
Chimp
Tshiluba language
Chimpanzee

Cola
West Africa
Hip
Wolof
Jazz
West Africa
Kwashiorkor
West Afric
Jumbo

Mojo

Okay
Wolof
Samba

Voodoo
West Africa
Yam
West Africa
Funk
Kikongo
Tilapia

Tsetse
Bantu
Zebra
Congo
Zombie
Central Africa etc.

(2.2) Duplications:
These are other ways through which words are formed through derivation. The process involved here is simply, recreation. The words could be partially recreated or completely recovered for a second time, thereby allowing for the duplication of the word as a whole or a slant duplication involving a mutational change (only in the vowels). When such a slant change occurs during this process, we say that the word is being reduplicated. When the process involves a reproduction of the word wholly, we say that a doubly has occurred. These processes are discussed in progress.  

(2.2.1)    Reduplication.
Reduplication refers to the process of deriving new words through the repetition of the properties of the first word also in the second word in a manner of compounding. In this process, the property may be consonant and vowel sounds. These include:
Zig – zag
Tick – tack
Bow – wow
Hanky – panky
Walkie – talkie
Helter – skelter
Willy – Nilly
Rick – rose
Riff – raff
See – saw
Wishy – washy
Sing – song
Razzle – dazzle
Nitty – gritty
Man – made

(2.2.2)    Doubly.
The term, doubly, as a relative tool for language analysis was invented by Nnaji (2013) to analyse the set of grammatical features which allow for absolute replications. Nnaji achieves this in his attempts to analyse the syntax of Nkalaha version of the Igbo language. In a paper submitted to the International Symposium on Language, Linguistics, Literature and Education held in Osaka; Japan 2013, Nnaji defined a doubly as follows:
A doubly or collection of doublies, as a language feature, refers to a spontaneous duplication of certain words in a relatively ungrammatical style. In this, lexical properties (especially verbs) such as follow, look, talk, copy etc. are adversely duplicated as follow-follow, look-look, talk-talk, copy-copy etc. as was the situation with pidgin. This duplication in Pidgin English is considered ungrammatical in Standard English, whereas in Nkalaha dialect it is duly grammatical.
Nnaji attempts to express the situation that prevails in the use of language for colloquial purposes where several words or phrases are realised through coinages which often times are replicated in everyday conversations. In this manner, a peculiar kind of coinage – a language feature that is prominent in Pidgin English – is purposefully invented and used in conversations mainly to spur humour and to ridicule certain actions or characterisations. Sometimes they are not used purposefully. This becomes the situation when they occur extemporaneously. When words are used in a manner that they are ungrammatically duplicated for emphases – such as follow-follow, look-look, touch-touch, waka-waka, beg-beg, borrow-borrow etc. – Nnaji refers to such word groupings as doublies.
Doublies can take varying forms. They may assume the place of action words, nomenclature or as phrases. These three forms are discussed as follow.
(a) Doublies derived from nouns/pronouns:
Tummy – Tummy
Mee – Mee
Goody – Goody
Wee – wee
(b) Derived from verbs:
Talk – Talk
Look – Look
Read – Read.
(c) Doublies from other parts of speech:
Very – very
Many – many
Now – now
Small – small
(d) Phrasal doublies:
Phrasal doublies are realised through the assistance of some adverbial particles, mainly prepositions, mediating among nouns. Examples of such doublies include:
Time – to – time = consistency or periodically.
One – by – one = serial, queue 
Line – by – line = one after the other/orderly.
Man – to – man = confrontation.
Strength – to – strength = manfully, challenge.
Bone – to – bone = a show of strength.
House – to – house = one after the other.
Hand – to – hand = transfer, exchange.
Hand – in – hand  = collection/collectiveness.
Face –to – face = meeting someone, confrontation.
Head – to –head = census.
Seat – to – seat = serial positions.
Road –to – road = endless movement, aimless movement etc
Room – to – room = from on room to another.
Word – to – word = in bits.
Ward – to – ward = from one ward to another.
Pole – to – pole = numbering, calculation.

One – on – one  = meeting someone, confrontation.

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